Critique the Uses and Gratification Theory of Media Effects

The uses and Gratification theory of media effects focuses on the consumers of media information.It assumes that members of the audience are not passive but take an active role in interpreting and integrating media into their own lives. The theory also holds that audiences are responsible for choosing media to meet their needs. The approach suggests that people use the media to fulfill specific gratifications.

Juxtaposing the tenets of this media doctrine to what pertains on the ground,it is no mincing words at all to state that this media theory lacks meat when one considers the power that the media holds in tuning the interest of people towards a particular direction.Indeed the power of the media over people far out weighs the reversal.The media gives what it fells will fetch readership instead of what the public will demand of them.The public at the mercy of the media,is affected either positively or negatively by the kind of information leased out.


References

Blumler and Katz. The Uses of Mass Communication: Current Perspectives on Gratification Research.

DeFleur, M. L., and Ball-Rokeachi, S. J. (1989). Theories of Mass Communication.

Katz, E. (1987). Communication research since Lazarsfeld. Public Opinion Quarterly, 51, 525–545

Critique the Agenda Setting Theory of Media Effects

The Agenda Setting Theory of Media Effects stipulates that the Media holds it in their power to determine which issues society should consider serious and feed on.Thus the media charts the path of a public agenda.

In our society today, it is a well worn cliche to stress that the media is not always considered the primose interparose when it comes to how society should think and set its priority.A lot of discerning listeners subject news to severe scrutiny and decide which one to pick with no cognizance yo what news items made the headlines.To such people the media has rather become a tool for exaggeration where every fire becomes an inferno,every demonstration a rampage as well as every defeat a collapse.The other side of the coin lies in the fact that there are independent people who are so liturgical to whatever goes on in the media.Thus with such persons, nothing informs their already formed perceptions and trends of thought.

References

McCombs, M.E. (1982). The Agenda-Setting Approach. In: Nimmo, D. & Sanders, K. (Eds.) Handbook of Political Communication. Beverly Hills, CA.: Sage.

Kosicki, G. M. (1993). Problems and Opportunities in Agenda-Setting Research. Journal of Communication. Vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 100–127.

Kiousis, S. , McCombs, M. (2003, March). Agenda Setting Study: Agenda Setting effects and strength, MT Journal Nr. p. 142

A mirror or a mirage?

In today’s world, the media’s ethical posture has influenced society’s attitude towards its reportage. The metaphor ‘mirror’ has been used to describe the relationship between the media and its audience. Prior, it suggests that the media is a reflection of reality. The assumption is that this reflection serves society’s need to have an unbiased, objective and critical view of her.

Although this apparent pragmatic tag satisfies the media’s role as the mediator of reality it is however in stark contrast to the situation on the ground .Neutrality in the media fraternity has been thrown to the dogs mainly due to the concentration of media houses in the hands of a privileged few as well as the commercial pressures that hang around their necks.

The current situation is akin to the media effects tradition undertaken by the three critical thinkers, also known as the Frankfurt school. Paul Lazarfield, Bernard Berleson,and Hael Gaundet had challenged the hypodermic needle theory(a theory propounded by Harold Lasswell in 1935 to suggest the direct influence of the media on her audience) of media effects tradition. The trust of the public for the media’s fairness is gradually fading away. The absence of credibility finds its strings rooted in her alignment to political parties and the unnecessary hyping of vulgar stories to sell one’s newspapers. In effect people have been compelled to judge on their own by looking and listening to different channels for the same news.

The destructive ethical posture worn by the Ghanaian media is gradually crumpling the country’s political stature. The current brand of Journalism transcending the media landscape adds meat to the work conducted by the Frankfurt school with the title: “The peoples’ voice” (1944, 95): a rebuttal of the notion that the media had a direct effect on the audience’s action.

Viewed from another angle the coinage “mirror” suggests the media as offering the platform for society to evaluate and adjust itself accordingly. This is similar to the tenets of the agenda setting theory of media effects. The media succeeds in shaping society to think in a particular way. No matter what trickles from the media-be it falsehood or truth, society feeds on it.

From which ever way we view it is important to realize the media is a potential tool to either mar or make us. In spite of being biased the media’s uncommon place in accelerating development and ensuring cooperative governance cannot be ignored.

The onus lies on the leaders of the industry to pull down her dilapidated structures and build new ones.

THE NEW LEADERSHIP PARADIGM: A MAMMOTH TASK AHEAD

It is a well-worn cliché that if the draw festival in South Africa’s beautiful mother city (Cape Town) is anything to go by – street performers, oversized puppets and endless vuvuzelas to the fore – the 2010 world cup is going to be as colorful as it is memorable. I think that hosts South Africa deserves a pat on their shoulders; unquestionably for becoming the first to host a FIFA world cup tournament on the continent. Yet more importantly, for bringing together the first generation of African players to play the world cup on their home soil. God bless South Africa, long live Africa.

Apart from the month-long soccer extravaganza, South Africa is presently holding a flower pot whose seeds are being been borrowed from across the continent and under-going a continuous indigenous watering in order that it might blossom with proud African colors. On the outskirt of Johannesburg sits the African Leadership Academy (ALA), a world-class Pan – African boarding school with the vision to groom the next generation of African leaders. The school’s curriculum is structured to create the requisite environment for the true leaders to emerge. And as Dr.Gamal Nasser Adam of the University of Ghana puts it: ‘leaders that Africa so desperately needs at this critical point in its history’.

The academy recruited its first batch of students in 2008.The Ghana Finalist Weekend which was designed to culminate the selection of students from Ghana was held at the SOS International College in Tema from March 7 to March 9 of the same year. As a national finalist on the ticket of my alma mater; Wesley Grammar School, I had the opportunity of meeting Mr. Fred Swaniker, Co-Founder and CEO of the academy during the weekend. After a cocktail party at the SOS college hall on our (the finalist) arrival, the dream of spear- heading a new leadership paradigm for the continent was brought to the fore by Mr. Fred Swaniker. The concept, which aims at bringing together the most promising young African leaders from across the continent and empowering them with cutting-edge tools in order to transform the fortunes of the continent, won my heart and have ever since become a faithful apostle: preaching the message of a new leadership wave for Africa.

Last week the call by the Sudanese telecommunication giant, and the founder of celtel Africa, Mr.Mo Ibrahim for a new crop of leaders to lead the continent and salvage her from her current leadership turmoil served as a sun which to sparkled light on my campaign. Indeed the frustration that led the founder of the Mo Ibrahim foundation to take off his coat and address audience at the University of Ghana tells everyone about the seriousness of the issue.

There is enough evidence to prove that most of the problems that face the continent are as a result of the crisis of her leadership. The continent lacks those servant leaders who will serve their people. Politics has now turned out to become the easiest way to amass wealth once one finds himself or herself in a public office. The poor who do not sit in the row with the eminent ones (Politicians) wallow in the muddy waters of poverty whiles the latter bath in the Jacuzzis of state funds. Indeed the cry for a new leadership order is worth it.
The hues and the cries of the continent is in no uncertain terms a Trojan horse. The misplaced priorities are just bamboozling. It is fallacious to assume that the continent can be rescued from her leadership woes if consented efforts are not made to develop her youth in order to challenge the status quo. African leaders are intoxicated with the doctrine of Savatocracy (my coinage for ‘till God save us’).The time has come for the
big promises that garnish campaign platforms, to give room to simplicity and practicality that can impact generations. The creation of a congenial atmosphere for the leaders to emerge is critical. Aside putting up schools and upgrading infrastructure the school curriculum must blend the academic work with culminating service projects from elementary level to the tertiary. These projects must encourage new ideas in the areas of community development as well as in science and technology. The youth must also be provided with adequate funding and support and allow them to form global networks to develop themselves and their career. If the youth are trained to experiment leadership they will certainly be ripe for bigger tasks with their experience.

Knowing the importance of a correct attitude to a nation, Africa’s proud son and exponent of continental unity called on the people of Ghana for a change in their attitude when he declared the independence of the country at the old polo grounds on the 6th of March, 1957. There is no denying the fact that the populace of Africa fail to give adequate moral support to their governments. Destroying state property, deliberate refusal to obey laws and the apathetic attitudes to national exercises is just but a few. The danger that the continent stands is that these attitudes are being transmitted to the younger generation. Civic education is earnest. There is the need to psyche the populace and provide grass root education to the unlearned masses. If the masses are given enough education about what their duties are in selecting leaders they will certainly not be bribed. Since it is not possible all can get education, we should not be oblivious of the fact that some sections of the public will remain illiterates and thus the necessity to provide them with this civic education in order to merge them beautifully in the garden of leadership in order that they do not turn to be thorns.

One of the favorite quotations I learnt at the Sunday school, whiles growing up concerns Jesus’ teaching that a man removes the mote in his eye before he takes the one in his neighbor’s eye. A physician must certainly heal himself first before he administers a medicine. I speak of Africa’s current leadership that rarely leads by example. It seems that the yardstick for standard is comparison. If party A did so and so then we party B should not be questioned. Excusing legality under the guise propaganda is the greatest shame that falls down Africa’s roof. According to Ivan Pavlov’s social learning theory, individuals are shaped by the configuration of society. Thus the younger generation is understudying the older generation and will grow up to become a replica of their deeds and misdeeds. A call for caution. Let us beware!

Let us remember that everything rises and falls on leadership. Africa shall be saved if only our leaders will preach and live by their long sermons. The time to walk the talk is now.

MASS COMMUNICATION-ASSIGNMENT

Name: Enock Gyan
Level: 100
Date: 19th March, 2010

Q.Critique media effects as stated in the hypodermic needle theory

Mass media plays a very crucial role in framing and reframing public opinion, connecting the world to individuals and reproducing the self image of society. The mass media in the 1940s and the 1950s were perceived as a powerful influence. The fast rise and the popularization of radio and television, the emergence of persuasion industries such as advertising and propaganda and Hitler’s monopolization of the mass media during the World War II to unify the German public behind the Nazi party amongst other factors, contributed to the need to investigate the effect of the mass media on society. In an attempt to demonstrate the effects of the mass media on the public Harold Laswell propounded the hypodermic needle theory in his pioneering work ‘Propaganda technique in the world war’(1927).

The phrasing ‘hypodermic needle’ is meant to give a mental picture of the direct, strategic and planned infusion of a message into an individual. Also known as the hypodermic-syringe model, this communication model holds that an intended message is directly received and wholly accepted by the receiver. The Psychological strings of the theory is rooted in behaviorism and based on Ivan Pavlov’s stimuli response learning theory. Laswell stated that human response to the media is uniform and immediate. Upon careful dissection in the theater of mass communication, the hypodermic needle theory suffers some malady.

Research has challenged the propagation that individuals’ response to the media is uniform and immediate. The most famous often cited for the hypodermic needle model was the 1938 broadcast of the world war and the subsequent reaction of widespread panic among its American mass audience. In a research led by Paul Azarsfeld and Herta Herzog, their findings showed that reaction to the broadcast were in fact diverse and were largely determined by situational and attitudinal attributes of listeners. This research is in consonance to ‘timing’ under the basic dimensions of media effects research. It stipulates that media effects can occur either directly or a long time after exposure to the media content. Thus individual response to media exposure varies according to the physiological, psychological cognitive, emotional, attitudinal and behavioral coloration of the individual. For instance in Ghana, interview conducted by an Accra based radio station to determine the response of individuals to the earth quake hoax that swept through the country recently, is a classical example. Whiles some people stormed out of their rooms like a madman chasing nothing, others stayed in doors and remained unperturbed on hearing the news about an impending earthquake.

The assertion that individual’s swallow everything that trickles down from the media under the hypodermic needle theory lacks meat. According to the Agenda –setting theory, the press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is conspicuous enough in telling people what to think about. This theory accounts for the complex nature of human attitude and recognizes that people do not accept what the media always say. There is enough evidence that abounds to the effect that people in our society today do not take the media as the final authority as far as news is concerned. The media now serves as the source for society to receive information and filter it by herself. For example a news item that reports on a corruption scandal involving one of the most respected Statesmen will be hardly swallowed by the Ghanaian public prior to the provision of hardcore evidence or a court ruling. Underscoring this essential human attribute, Berleson (1948) aptly comments: ‘many hear, but few listen’

In sum, it is unequivocal to stress that the hypodermic needle theory is not based on empirical findings from research but rather on assumptions about human nature. Thus the absence of a scientific orientation has flawed the theory as incoherent and inconsistent and in stark contrast to the situation on the ground. In spite of the material inaccuracies that clothes the hypodermic needle theory; it nevertheless served as a trailblazer for other modified theories on media effects to emerge. Others that followed this breakthrough includes the ‘Cultivation theory’ by George Gerbner, the ‘Social action theory’ by Anderson and Meyer, the ‘Agenda setting theory’ by Maxwell Mc combs and Donald and the ‘Media dependency theory’ by Ball Rokeach and DeFlner. These theories have managed to tackle media effects holistically by considering the social, psychological and behavioral implications of media exposure.

Bathing in a pool of passion

When my mobile phone began to cough out my favorite jingles On the night before the fateful day, hardly could I fish out the caller. As I dragged myself forcibly out of sleep to respond to the call I was surprised to find out that the call was coming from Oswald, a good friend of mine who had contended fiercely that the Black satellites were going to loose in their encounter with the Selacao of Brazil in the FIFA under 20 world cup finals in Egypt when we met during the day. Oswald is an enthusiastic Chelsea fan and has being a friend since primary one when we both attended Abeka '4'primary school at New Fadama.I love him for his joviality and diligence.

I always will remember him for a single statement he made which turned a whole class into a scene almost like that of a market day at Mallam Atta in Accra Newtown. In 1998 whiles in class two, our school was rocked by a storm which ripped off the roofing sheets. As efforts were underway to secure for us a temporal place I happened to visit my brother, Eugene in his school with Oswald. Upon arrival we met a teacher in Eugene's class who asked why we were not in school at that time of the day. Quickly Oswald managed to respond rather loudly which in my candid opinion deserves an arrest for messing up the Queen's language. Hear him: 'Please madam our singli(meaning roofing sheet) has fly'. The class which was once quiet suddenly begun to laugh out their heads off amidst cheers and jeers at Oswald who ignorant of the atrocity he has committed against the English language equally beamed with smiles. However the teacher although also had his share of hilarity was quick to put Oswald on the right path. And ever since that day Eugene's friends any time they met us or him alone called him 'our singli has fly' in a very funny which always got him gnashing his teeth. It is surprising that he has grown with this habit and so easily fumes at the slightest provocation. He always gets mad when he hears any ill comment about the 'blues'. But as a Liverpool fan he would most often tease me anytime we lost a game. Due to this attitude many were taken by surprise that our friendship had survived the test of time.

In fact I could not believe my eyes when I saw that he was the one calling considering the heated argument which occurred between the two of us in the day. 'What at all could push him to call me and even at such an odd hour?' I asked myself and paused to guess. I finally decided to pick the call although I was very tired and heavy-eyed. 'Hellooo' I spoke quiet leisurely. 'You never walk alone (as he called me, being a Liverpool fan) I get som dream right thee nooo'. 'Charlie you for fit wedge till morrow' I responded in a sluggish way. 'Oh you bore, make you no fuck up'. He said. Before I could say anything he had started narrating his dream. 'The blues Charlie Chelsea no go loose again, I sorry I mean the black satellites. I conf sef.charlie you dey'. 'Sure' I responded but this time in a lively way as I itched to find out what exactly his dream was. He continued 'you never walk alone morrow match go goo give Ghana. As I see for ma dream ego tough but we go win.Ma dream no dey fail oooh. Tofiakwah!' 'Really' I said in utter dismay. 'Charlie bed' he said snappily as he cut the line.

I was dumbfounded by the way he spoke. Hmmm I sighed and went

back to sleep. At dawn I was awakened by a strange sound. The sound of an unusual 'myrrrrr' of a sheep clashed with a cock's usual 'Kokrokooo'.It certainly meant that something special was really at stake. But how could I have read into such a strange occurrence considering my superstitious instinct which I have contracted from a society where every single event is considered to have an evil element present.

Knowing certainly that it was the day set for the encounter between the black satellites and the Brazilians I sat closely beside the radio set to hear the announcement on the squad that will initiate Ghana's victory before setting off for campus. I could feel an aura of optimism engulf the whole GIJ campus upon arrival. Hope beyond hope, confidence beyond confidence- it was just simply amazing. Everyone I engaged that day was just high spirited. Not just because of 'patriotic Blindness' but the facts could not fail but speak for it. 'It was a pure soccer formula which could not fail' some had concluded.

As I journeyed back home after school I snooped the street corners, in the buses, at the news stands, in the stalls and all I could sense was nothing but the sweet aroma of 'optimism' about triumph. At last the moment I was eagerly yearning for was due. I hurriedly walked to my usual soccer bay to get a feel of real soccer action and spectatorship as well as meet my 'fine' friend Oswald.

Eyes popped and rolled tenaciously at the television box in front of us, as the game of the chase and waggle for an inflated ball begun. The booing of rhythmic words like 'goal', 'no' 'ho' 'go' were very uncommon on the lips of my compatriots. The unlucky hour dawned in the course of the encounter when the Referee awarded a needless infringement in favor of the Brazilians which saw off the pitch Daniel Addo a key Ghanaian central defender in the first half.. In the heat of such nervous strain I was surprised when I heard a shout through the crowd: 'fair play for you'. There was an instantaneous uproar. 'Wicked spectacle' an aged man in his sixties who stood beside me quickly howled and bawled whiles staring in the direction of the one who had made such an unfriendly comment. The man's coinage for spectator as 'spectacle' invited a peal of laughter. Moving closer I discovered to my surprise that the gentleman who had caused the brouhaha was my own Oswald who I had not chanced across since I got there. A slim woman in her early thirties defied the glee full atmosphere and chipped in Ga: 'Ghana nyo ji le lo?'To wit is he a Ghanaian at all?' This statement stirred up a of shoal of insults targeted directly at Oswald. At this moment I was simply sorry for my friend. Looking at him I could find my once cheerful friend out of the blue become as cool and chilly as iced water. I drew closer and paddled him on the shoulder as an expression of pity.

At the end of the first half it became obvious that there was an outbreak of dead noise in the whole country. People painfully lamented over the absence of the central defender.Infact the 'Satellites mania' had hit every part of the city. With a maimed side in the second half and through out the extra time most Ghanaians sat on tenter hooks. The shout of 'gooal' was only heard intermittently through out this section of the game any time there was an attempt by the Ghanaian players to score. Some people had given up when they saw the nature of the game at stake. To be frank it was a tough time-playing with 10 men against the 11 man Squad of soccer giants Brazil. I moved from where I was to get a sachet of water at a Kiosk nearby so as to quench my thirst. Wonders they say will never end. Upon reaching the 'Iyigbe' store as it was known, I uncovered a truth which I had always doubted any time Oswald had told me. Mr.Ahiadjo affectionately known as 'full supporter' who is the father of Mamma the owner of the kiosk was said to have being shedding tears any time a national team stood the risk of loosing a game. He appeared twitchy, hands crossed over his head which was scuffed with the national colors and had developed red eyes like that of a hungry lion. As I poured the cool water down my throat I could not help but notice tears run down his cheeks when a Brazilian player nearly tapped a ball into our net save by the goal keeper's intervention. I nodded in surprise. What a sight it was! 'This is the real meaning of passion' I told myself as I quickly relocated to my usual position. I immediately heard a thunderous 'Amen' from one slim woman decently dressed in a traditional 'kente' cloth which of late is very hard to come by. By her dress code I was no mean surprised about her religious inclination. May heaven fall his grace on all such wonderful ladies who dress to glorify their maker. 'What is that?' Oswald's old boy asked rather furiously. It was through this query that we got to know that Adom fm was undertaking a spiritual exercise to secure victory for the Satellites. 'Apuuuuu God no dey football inside. Why do you fool yourselves like that' one man snapped. To be frank this man also got a fair share of insults as my friend had suffered. This time around I heard Oswald Laughing so loudly on top of his voice. At last when the sound of the whistle wrapped off the one hundred and twenty (120) minutes soccer show, the bonfire of anxiety was partially quenched as most people expressed hope in penalty-shoot outs as against a soccer action in which the Brazilians, won the ball possession rating through out the game.

As the selection of players took place on the pitch, a toss of faith was also in process as the religiosity of the Ghanaian was not left out. Besides me stood Abdul Rahim a staunch Muslim who led a group of Muslims to recite some versus from the Quran to claim Allah's favor on the satellites at that crucial point. I was fascinated by the way they quickly pulled themselves together to assemble mats which they spread on the ground to sit on. Just some few meters away I also spotted some women praying seriously amidst speaking in tongues. And within some few minutes a lot of people including myself had already joined them to sing some hot praises as a sign that victory was already ours. I enjoyed every bit of this religious exercise. Some jama boys were also present as they got arrested in the throb of the drum and danced to some traditional songs-all to affirm an impending victory.

In fact I was amazed that people could openly embrace diversity in pursuance of a common good. It was a beautiful sight which I believe the angels in heaven will certainly smile at. As the penalty- shoot outs started I saw my good friend draw closer to me as he wrapped his arms around my neck. Others had either done a similar thing or held hands tightly irrespective of gender. In fact this was the single moment which aroused the passion in me as I could feel goose pimples developed all over my body. The spectacular saves by the goal keeper attracted tremendous applause from the teeming crowd.

And before Agyeman Badu was about to kick the wining goal all the Jama boys had already gone bear chested with Mr.Okantey a Drinking spot operator promising what he described as 'free booze' for everyone if the kick manages to give the satellites the long awaited victory.

And when Agyeman Badu's winning goal meant that we had lifted The trophy as pioneers in Africa On a 4 against 3 goals aggregate On penalties , oh my goodness the sight is too much for tongue and pen to describe- dance ,acrobatics, hugs and what have you. Oswald had simply vanished from the scene to follow the 'Jama' boys.

It is a night I will hardly forget. On the street vehicles tooted their horns amidst music from loud speakers which succeeded in electrifying the whole atmosphere. As the Jama boys took to the streets they attracted a very large following most of them women who waved pieces of cloth in the sky to show full appreciation to God for the favor done us and not any man and I mean any man. The 'free booze 'Party was accompanied with my favorite 'Egwee' song as we

Celebrated the victory of our gallant heroes in grand style. And far away I could spot Oswald 'digging' with old boy 'wicked spectacle'.

Poem:The Akagu court of trespass

Behind the clouds,
The sun spits it merciless fire
Ghostly spirits walks forcefully
In their presence the palm branches tremble
And massage each other
Like fresh couples making love
Beneath we sit; at the court of trespass
In the womb of the palace
Our reddish eyes are lucid
Like a Yoruba hunter on a hot chase
Baptized in sweat to release his woe
Having sworn to his wife by the gods
To bring a catch for Amala

Sometimes it is hard for us to understand
The suffering label we wear
Yet the market women's gossip holds water
That our new Chief, Mensa, not in command of his zip
Sneaks into Agbosu's house every market day
And unleash his carnal hunger on the cajoling mistress
But whiles enjoying the sweet stolen water
On the twelfth market day after his ascension
Was caught by Agbosu
Who set did set the clever tap
To roof his sins, he names Agbosu as his second in command,
For by Akagu custom a chief names his favorite to help him rule
And we were made the sacrifice for atonement

Agbosu is intoxicated with power
His judgment is cruel and sinful
By means of devilish accusations and plots
He has raped our land of good people he calls enemies
With tears in our eyes we banished our eminent citizens
Okidi the brave hunter, who kills the antelopes for our sacrifices with his bare hands, Gokpe the medicine man who knows all the herbs in the forest than his own skin,
Sogo the wise linguist who knows our traditions and culture from womb to tomb and Akuaye the old village nurse who reduces our wives pain at childbirth
Their departure has indeed opened the darkest chapter of our lives
Oh Agbosu you are a demon
Thou art the torn in our flesh
By thee a dagger of sorrow stabs our souls

But tempus fugit
Agbosu now suffers the same sickness that gave him power
He was caught red-handed today
Playing delightful bed games with the chief's wife in broad daylight
With sweet anger we have brought them to the court of trespass
The mighty gods of Akagu demand their blood
Mensa is failing to perform his last duty for our exercise
For by custom his voice confirms the death penalty
He is gripped with fear and shakes like a prey of epilepsy
He fears that Mensa will expose his sins if he pronounce his death
But we the sons and daughters of Akagu, do not care how they settle this
Our stones are already falling from our manhood wrappers
For whether Mensa talks or not, every Caesar must accept his tribute

By Enock Gyan
Ghana Institute Journalism